Literature and Ideals Essay Example for Free

Literature and Ideals Essay Definition: Literature is a term used to describe written or spoken material. Broadly speaking, literature is used to describe anything from creative writing to more technical or scientific works, but the term is most commonly used to refer to works of the creative imagination, including works of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction. Why do we read literature? Literature represents a language or a people: culture and tradition. But, literature is more important than just a historical or cultural artifact. Literature introduces us to new worlds of experience. We learn about books and literature; we enjoy the comedies and the tragedies of poems, stories, and plays; and we may even grow and evolve through our literary journey with books. Ultimately, we may discover meaning in literature by looking at what the author says and how he/she says it. We may interpret the authors message. In academic circles, this decoding of the text is often carried out through the use of literary theory, using a mythological, sociological, psychological, historical, or other approach. Whatever critical paradigm we use to discuss and analyze literature, there is still an artistic quality to the works. Literature is important to us because it speaks to us, it is universal, and it affects us. Even when it is ugly, literature is beautiful. Importance of Literature. It is a curious and prevalent opinion that literature, like all art, is a mere play of imagination, pleasing enough, like a new novel, but without any serious or practical importance. Nothing could be farther from the truth. Literature preserves the ideals of a people; and idealslove, faith, duty, friendship, freedom, reverenceare the part of human life most worthy of preservation. The Greeks were a marvelous people; yet of all their mighty works we cherish only a few ideals,ideals of beauty in perishable stone, and ideals of truth in imperishable prose and poetry. It was simply the ideals of the Greeks and Hebrews and Romans, preserved in their literature, which made them what they were, and which determined their value to future generations. Our democracy, the boast of all English-speaking nations, is a dream; not the doubtful and sometimes disheartening spectacle presented in our legislative halls, but the lovely and immortal ideal of a free and equal manhood, preserved as a most precious heritage in every great literature from the Greeks to the Anglo-Saxons. All our arts, our sciences, even our inventions are founded squarely upon ideals; for under every invention is still the dream of Beowulf, that man may overcome the forces of nature; and the foundation of all our sciences and discoveries is the immortal dream that men shall be as gods, knowing good and evil. In a word, our whole civilization, our freedom, our progress, our homes, our religion, rest solidly upon ideals for their foundation. Nothing but an ideal ever endures upon earth. It is therefore impossible to overestimate the practical importance of literature, which preserves these ideals from fathers to sons, while men, cities, governments, civilizations, vanish from the face of the earth. It is only when we remember this that we appreciate the action of the devout Mussulman, who picks up and carefully preserves every scrap of paper on which words are written, because the scrap may perchance contain the name of Allah, and the ideal is too enormously important to be neglected or lost.

Leukemia: An overview

Leukemia: An overview What Is Leukemia? Leukemia is the general term used to describe four different disease-types called: Acute Myelogenous (AML), Acute Lymphocytic (ALL), Chronic Myleogenous (CML), and Chronic Lymphocytic (CLL). AML, the most common type of leukemia, is an attacking cancer of the bone marrow and blood. ALL, the most common in young children and adults over 50, is a cancer of the lymphocytes. CML is a cancer of the blood-producing cells of the bone marrow. CLL is a cancer of the lymphocytes. What are the Symptoms of Leukemia? The symptoms for leukemia depend on the type of leukemia. For AML, the symptoms are: fatigue, weakness, easy bruising or bleeding, weight loss, fever, bone or abdominal pain, difficulty breathing, frequent infections, swollen glands, and swollen or bleeding gums. For ALL, the symptoms are: fatigue, weakness, easy bruising or bleeding, weight loss, fever, bone or abdominal pain, dyspnea (difficulty breathing), frequent infections, swollen glands, and enlarged liver or spleen. For CML, the symptoms are: fatigue, excessive sweating, weight loss, and abdominal swelling or discomfort because of enlarged spleen. For CLL, the symptoms are: swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck, under the arms, or in the groin, discomfort or fullness in the upper left part of the abdomen because of enlarged spleen, fatigue, fever or infection, abnormal bleeding, and weight loss. What is the Diagnosis? The diagnosis for leukemia again depends on the type of leukemia. For AML, the tests that may be used to diagnosis a patient with AML are: blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, lumbar puncture, imaging tests, and subtypes. The tests that may be used to diagnose a patient with ALL is a little bit different. They are: blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, flow cytometry and cytochemistry, cytogenetics, lumbar puncture, and imaging tests. The tests for CML are: blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, cytogenetics, and imaging tests. The tests for CLL are: blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, flow cytometry and cytochemistry, and imaging tests. Some of the factors that may be considered by your doctor when choosing a diagnosis test are: age and medical condition, the type of cancer, severity of symptoms, and previous test results. What are the Risk Factors? A risk factor is anything that increases a persons chance of developing cancer. Some can be controlled, while some others cant. Most do not directly cause cancer. The risk factors that may raise your chances to get any one of those types of leukemia are: your age, if you smoked or if you are smoking, genetic disorders, high doses of radiation, if you had a previous chemotherapy treatment, race, viruses, gender, family history, and ethnicity. What is the Treatment? The treatment for each type of leukemia may depend on the classification, how healthy the person is, the patients stage, risk status, the subtype, morphology, and cytogenetics. Some of the kinds of treatments are: chemotherapy, induction, complete remission (CR), consolidation therapy, maintenance therapy, re-induction therapy, and central nervous system prophylaxis (preventive treatment), consolidation or intensification, Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia Treatment (APL), Imatinib, Dasatinib, Nilotinib, stem cell transplantation/bone marrow transplantation, Interferon, SCT, Hydroxyurea, and Biologic therapy. What are the Side Effects of Cancer and Cancer Treatment? Cancer and cancer treatment can cause a variety of side effects. Some of the side effects are: constipation, fatigue, hair loss, infection, mouth sores, nausea and vomiting, Neutropenia, skin problems, and Thromboc- ytopenia. Not all patients have side effects. What about After Treatment? After treatment, talk to your doctor about developing a follow-up care plan. People that are in remission should have regular follow-up examinations for a few years to see if there is any sign of relapse or late effects. What are Some Questions to Ask the Doctor? Some questions that you should ask the doctor are: â€Å"What is my Diagnosis?, What does this all mean?, What subtype of (ALL, AML, CML, and CLL) do I have?, What are the possible side effects of this treatment?, What clinical trials are open to me?, Do I need to start treatment right away?, How likely is it that my (ALL, AML, CML, or CLL) will go into remission?, How will the treatment affect my normal activities, including my ability to work or attend school?, What support services are available to me?, Can you recommend a leukemia specialist?, and Where is the best place for me to be treated?.† What is the Classification for ALL Leukemia? The doctors classify ALL based on the type of lymphocytes that are affected.

Should Euthanasia be Legalised?

Should Euthanasia be Legalised? Modern medicine has been beneficial in improving the quality of life, but sometimes it has been accompanied by harmful and dehumanising effects.   Many terminally ill people have been kept alive against their will by advanced medical technologies and have been denied assistance in dying.   Should now be the time for our society to recognise that terminally ill individuals have the right to choose the time, place, and manner of their own death?   Should euthanasia be legalised because our right as human beings allows us to make our own decisions?   If the right to life is to be a genuine right, rather than a duty to remain alive for as long as possible, shouldn’t people be free to choose their right to die if they consider it worthwhile to do so?   Shouldn’t these persons be allowed their human rights, dignity, and self-determination and ultimately the right to die? The European Convention on Human Rights, Article 2, recognises the right to life by implication, providing: Everyone’s right to life shall be protected by law.   No one shall be deprived of his life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which this penalty is provided by law. Deprivation of life shall not be regarded as inflicted in contravention of this Article when it results from the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary: in defence of any person from unlawful violence; in order to effect a lawful arrest or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detained; in action lawfully taken for the purpose of quelling a riot or insurrection. While the Convention requires national authorities to protect the right of ‘everyone’ to life, it does not define ‘everyone.’ Therefore, although fundamental, the right to life is generally not regarded as absolute.   Indeed, there are circumstances in which it is lawful to take another man’s life, for example by a lawful act of self-defence.   The present author not concerned with cases such as these but rather the controversial nature of the range of entities which have the right and the content of the right in different circumstances: those for which the European Convention makes no provision.   For example, opponents of euthanasia, may recognize the legitimacy of abortion; a process which involves taking some life.   Furthermore, the right of a person to commit suicide is recognised by some people, due to the belief that the right to self determination is the most essential human right. The debate on whether euthanasia and thus the right t o die in some forms might be morally acceptable practice is the subject of this essay.  Ã‚   For the purposes of this essay and the limitations in word count, there will be no dividing line between refusal of treatment, suicide, assisted suicide and euthanasia.   Rather, Lord Donaldson’s remarks about the right to choose how to live, rather than the right to die, will be taken as true. There is no ambiguity in the law of the United Kingdom towards a positive act of euthanasia; it is murder. The motive to ‘kill’ is certainly irrelevant; intention is the deciding factor.   There have been recommendations of a special offence for ‘mercy killing,’ and although there appears to be no intention to translate this into law, the courts seem reluctant to convict a ‘mercy killer’ to mandatory life imprisonment. The sympathetic view of the judges has still, until recently, consisted of predominately unsuccessful attacks on the legality of euthanasia.   However, lawful euthanasia has arrived in some jurisdictions and has added a new aspect to the debate. In the Netherlands, medically practised euthanasia became lawful in November 2000.   The doctor is required to believe that the patient’s request was ‘voluntary and well considered’ and that the patient’s suffering was ‘lasting and unbearable.’   It is also a requirement that the doctor has consulted an independent physician. The legislation also allows for advanced consent, which carries controversies in relation to the patient who does not wish to die but is killed by a doctor due to earlier written authorisation. However, the main argument against the legislation is that once a prohibition against killing is removed, it is far more difficult to control the practice. Indeed, there is evidence that euthanasia has been practised in many cases without the patient’s consent.   Another concern is that eventually, the grounds for the exercise of euthanasia will become more trivial so that the want itself will overpower the grounds.   One example is the physical healthy woman who becomes depressed. And what of the controversial provision on euthanasia for minors? This practice therefore warns of the dangers of an over sensitive right to die. Similar chances for legislation in the United Kingdom are remote: ‘The Government can see no basis for permitting suicide.   Such a change would be open to abuse and put the lives of the vulnerable and weak at risk.’   The uncertainty of the common law has, in the past, been used as a justification for a change in the law but, it is submitted that the decisions in Pretty and Mrs B clarify the boundaries between the right to live and the right to die.   Acts committed with an intention of bringing life to an end are legally impermissible, save where the patient performs them; treatment may be withdrawn from a competent adult, although the legal prohibition for assisted suicide remains.   For the reasons explained in relation to the Netherlands, it is submitted that the right to die is adequately provided for in existing convention and that there is no requirement for legislation. In conclusion, it is true that a profound respect for the sanctity of human life should be embedded in our law and moral philosophy; that is why murder has always been treated as the most grave and heinous of all crimes.   However, the arguments considered above explicate that the law has to take into account a myriad of interests which are problematic and surprisingly conditional. In matters of life and death, we are dealing with what Professor Laurence Tribe called the ‘clash of absolutes.’   Under these conditions, rules cannot dictate answers.   The best that can be hoped for is to provide answers which are not too inconsistent with too many of them.  

Adolescent Role Assessments: José and Chhaya Essay -- Eating Disorder

â€Å"Adolescents experience dramatic changes in physical appearance, family relations, peer relations, sexuality, and media use† (Arnett, 2012). Through these experiences, adolescents have the opportunity to change their outlook and behavior. From family relations to questioning identity, to peer relationships and self-esteem, adolescents have various ways of coping with the changes they are presented with. The stories of Josà © and Chhaya reflect the changes adolescents go through to better understand who they are. Their stories mainly look at their peer and family relations, and the impact they had on Josà © and Chhaya. These stories accurately represent the discussions and readings we’ve had in class (J.Davis, Psych 234, February 28, 2014). Identity is defined as a person being aware of their uniqueness in terms of beliefs, attitudes, and aspirations. As most people have difficulty defining the word identity, most people struggle with their own identity. This can be particularly true for adolescents. Identity can be coupled with achievement or confusion; either the individual has a clear understanding of who they are, or they do not (J.Davis, Psych 234, February 28, 2014). Both Josà © and Chhaya reached a point in their life when they were confused with their own identity. Josà © struggled with identifying his ethnicity, and acknowledging he was different from his classmates and peers. Chhaya struggled with her identity in regards to her parents, peers and how they would treat her, and what was expected of her through their relationships. Josà © was faced with being unaware of his racial identity. He viewed his ethnic identity with public regard, and only thought about how others viewed his race, and felt that he was no diff... ...t she should have showed interest towards the young man, because he was attractive, and there would be few others of his caliber to go out with her again. This lead to Chhaya believing there was something wrong with her, and the way she handled the romantic situation she was placed in (Garrod, Smulyan, Powers & Kilkenny, 2012). Josà © and Chhaya both went through struggling to understand themselves, and how to handle the responsibilities their peers or parents had put on them to act a certain way, or provided Josà © and Chhaya with the need to make a point, and prove themselves. Works Cited Arnett, J.J. (2012). Human development: A cultural approach. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Garrod, A., Smulyan, L., Powers, S.I., & Kilkenny R. (2012). Adolescent portraits: Identity, relationships, and challenges. 7thedition. Boston MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Comparing the Behavioral Perspective and the Cognitive Perspective :: Psychology

Comparing the Behavioral Perspective and the Cognitive Perspective   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The behavioral perspective is the idea that if psychology was to be a science, then it must focus on events, which are directly observable on behavior, rather than on mental life. The behavioral perspective maintains the primary emphasis on observable behavior and its relation to environmental events. Behavioral perspective is through reinforcement, which is the idea that patterns of emitted behavior can be selected by their consequences. Cognitive perspective is centered on the description of the nature and development of the representation of knowledge. It comes from three points of view, which are the theory of information processing, the inability of behaviorism to provide a comprehensive account for all aspects of human behavior, and the invention of the computer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Behavioral perspective is the theory that the majority of all behavior is learned from the environment after birth. Freewill is considered to be an illusion, because our environment determines behavior. Behaviorists believe that only behavior should be observed, not our minds, since we cannot see into other people’s minds. There is no way to know if a person is honestly answering a question so it is irrelevant. Behaviorists use strict laboratory experiments, usually on animals, such as rats or pigeons. They test animals because the laws of learning are universal, there are only a quantitative difference between animals and humans, and animals are practically and ethically more convenient to test.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cognitive psychologists think that mental processes should and can be investigated scientifically. Comparing the Behavioral Perspective and the Cognitive Perspective :: Psychology Comparing the Behavioral Perspective and the Cognitive Perspective   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The behavioral perspective is the idea that if psychology was to be a science, then it must focus on events, which are directly observable on behavior, rather than on mental life. The behavioral perspective maintains the primary emphasis on observable behavior and its relation to environmental events. Behavioral perspective is through reinforcement, which is the idea that patterns of emitted behavior can be selected by their consequences. Cognitive perspective is centered on the description of the nature and development of the representation of knowledge. It comes from three points of view, which are the theory of information processing, the inability of behaviorism to provide a comprehensive account for all aspects of human behavior, and the invention of the computer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Behavioral perspective is the theory that the majority of all behavior is learned from the environment after birth. Freewill is considered to be an illusion, because our environment determines behavior. Behaviorists believe that only behavior should be observed, not our minds, since we cannot see into other people’s minds. There is no way to know if a person is honestly answering a question so it is irrelevant. Behaviorists use strict laboratory experiments, usually on animals, such as rats or pigeons. They test animals because the laws of learning are universal, there are only a quantitative difference between animals and humans, and animals are practically and ethically more convenient to test.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cognitive psychologists think that mental processes should and can be investigated scientifically.

The Effects of Antidepressants on Physical and Psychological Symptoms of Depression :: Nursing

This article informs about a study that makes the connection between psycholgogical and physical symptoms of depression, and it highlights new possibilities of treating physical complaints separately. It is a known fact that mostly unexplainable physical symptoms appear in depressed patients, and often they are the signals that indicate to physicians the presence of an affective disorder. These symptoms are most commonly: fatigue, sleep problems, headaches, nausea and back pain. In this research, 601 patients undergoing different therapies for their depression were chosen randomly to participate. Patients in this investigation were put through a longitudinal experiment to see how the symptoms of their depression, as well as their physical symptoms were altered with antidepressants. They were periodically asked to fill out a survey to assess their depression, psychological symptoms, and their quality of life. The experiments lasted 9 months, and the patients received these different antidepressants: paroxetine, fluoxetine, and sertraline. Almost half of the patients presented all common physical symptoms, and few developed new symptoms during the study. Although the physical symptoms had greatly improved in the first month of medication, they soon plateaued and ceased to improve, while the psychological symptoms such as mood and well-being continued to improve.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the end of this experiment, scientist learned that although the depression symptoms of patients almost disappeared, the physical symptoms, mostly the ones involving pain, had not continued to improve since the plateau in the first month of therapy.

Amendments is the Government protections for the imperiled/endangered species Essay

The significance of these three Amendments is the Government protections for the imperiled/endangered species. These aerial, terrestrial, and aquatic creations were (and up to now) being inadequately taking cared of and are slowly forgotten their existence. And, if people knew that they’re now endangered, these species are put to these people’s cages and brought home for them to keep. However, getting them from their habitats where they used to live and multiply more is not that good idea. People can’t make them as pets, ornaments/displays, or even as food for consumption. They play major rule in this world, they need to survive for humans to survive also. So, these nature-friendly laws were passed to Congress and implemented to the concern citizens. †¢The Endangered Species Act of 1973 or ESA was designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a â€Å"consequence of economic growth and development untendered by adequate concern and conservation. â€Å" The stated purpose on this Act is to protect species and also â€Å"the ecosystems upon which they depend. † It encompasses plants and invertebrates as well as vertebrates. This is administered by two federal agencies, the FWS and the NOAA (which includes the National Marine Fisheries Service NMFS). NOAA handles marine species, and the FWS has responsibility over freshwater fish and all other species. Species that occur in both habitats (e. g. sea turtles and Atlantic sturgeon) are jointly managed. Though ESA only protects species which are officially listed as â€Å"threatened† or â€Å"endangered†. A species can be listed in two ways. The first is for the FWS or NOAA Fisheries to take the initiative and directly list the species. The second is via individual or organizational petition which prompts FWS or NMFS to conduct a scientific review. There are two categories on the list, endangered and threatened. Endangered species are closer to extinction than threatened species. A third status is that of â€Å"candidate species†. And by March 2008, after more than seven years of the Bush Administration, 59 additional domestic species had been placed on the endangered list, an annual rate of less than nine per year. Section 11 of the Endangered Species Act describes the violations and penalties that may be enforced under law. The United States Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, or the Secretary of the Department in which the Coast Guard is operating are the bodies of the federal government responsible for enforcing the provisions of this Act. The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service play the predominant role in law enforcement of the Endangered Species Act. In connection to this, there are different degrees of violation with the law being imposed. The most punishable offense is enforced upon those who knowingly break the law through acts of importing or exporting, taking, possessing, selling, delivering, carrying, transporting, or shipping—essentially trafficking endangered species without permission from the Secretary. Any act of knowingly â€Å"taking† (which includes harming, wounding, or killing) an endangered species is also subject to the same penalty. Recovery plans benefit species as indicated by the fact that the longer species have recovery plans, the more likely they are to be classified as improving. The benefit, however, appears to be limited to single-species oriented plans; large multi-species, ecosystem-based plans are not correlated with improving status; perhaps due to their lack of specificity. And, as habitat loss is the primary threat to most imperiled species, the original ESA of 1973 allowed the FWS and NOAA Fisheries to designate specific areas as protected â€Å"critical habitat† zones. In 1978, Congress amended the ESA to require designation for all threatened and endangered species except those which might be harmed by the publication of such maps. Congress indicated that the exception should rarely be invoked. Also, most provisions of the ESA revolve around preventing extinction. Critical habitat is one of the few that focuses on recovery. Species with critical habitat are twice as likely to be recovering as species without critical habitat. In 1982, Congress amended the ESA to enhance the permitting provisions of the act, (Section 10) and intended, in part, to provide landowners with incentives to participate in endangered species conservation. Pursuant to these provisions, by preparing a â€Å"Habitat Conservation Plan† (HCP) that meets statutory criteria, private landowners can obtain â€Å"incidental take permits† that allows otherwise prohibited impacts to endangered, threatened and other species covered in the permitting documents. On April 3, 2007, 41 species have been delisted; sixteen due to recovery, nine due to extinction (seven of which were extinct prior to being listed), nine due to changes in taxonomic classification, five due to discovery of new populations, one due to an error in the listing rule, and one due to an amendment to the Endangered Species Act specifically requiring the species delisting. [7] Twenty-three others have been down listed from â€Å"endangered† to â€Å"threatened† status. Some have argued that the recovery of DDT-threatened species such as the bald eagle, brown pelican and peregrine falcon should be attributed to the 1973 congressional ban on DDT rather than the Endangered Species Act, however, the listing of these species as endangered was a substantial cause of congress instituting the ban and many non-DDT oriented actions were taken on their behalf under the Endangered Species Act (i. e. captive breeding, habitat protection, and protection from disturbance). (Nixon.  R (1972). â€Å"Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program† 51. Juliet Eilperin, â€Å"Since ’01, Guarding Species Is Harder: Endangered Listings Drop Under Bush†, Washington Post, March 23, 2008). †¢1973 also saw the creation of the Convention International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This is an International agreement restricting international commerce in plant and animal species believed to be actually or potentially harmed by trade. The U. S.  CITES list includes all species protected by the ESA in addition to species which are vulnerable but not yet threatened or endangered. While it is widely understood that habitat decline is the primary cause of endangerment for most species, trade in species, or parts of species, is a major cause of decline for some groups of animals and plants. This has included spotted cats for their furs, rhinoceros for horn, elephants and walrus for ivory and, more so in rec ent times, parrots and exotic reptiles for the pet trade, corals and fish for the aquarium trade, and sharks for their fins. Medicinal and ornamental plants are also exploited worldwide, as is tropical timber. Annual trade in wild species worldwide is now estimated to include several hundred million individual animals and plants, and it is a multi-billion dollar industry. Thus the need for CITES is ever more apparent. It also has the distinction, among international conservation agreements, of having the most legal strength behind it, and there is an abundant literature in the fields of law, conservation, international relations and economics about its global impact. To date, well over 30,000 species receive some protection under this landmark agreement, and more are being added on a regular basis. As both a conservation and trade convention, it has more obligations and more detailed enforcement mechanisms than is typical of conservation agreements. When it came into force, the original Parties were most concerned with a rather small subset of species that are or were used in the fashion industry (e. g. , wild cats for fur, crocodilians for leather) or as ornaments (e. g. elephant ivory, wild cattle as trophy heads). Since that time, thousands of species, and in some cases entire taxonomic groups of species, have been added to the Convention simply because many people in both developed and developing countries have attained higher standards of living and are able to afford things that most could not 30 years ago. (CITES: Lead Author: Joel Heinen (other articles): Article Topics: Ecology, International environmental issues, Environmental law and Conservation biology. Heinen, Joel (Lead Author); Richard Reibstein (Topic Editor). 2007. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). † ) †¢ The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972 was reauthorized by the Marine Mammal Protection Act Amendments of 1994 (Public Law 103-238) as signed by President Clinton on April 30, 1994. The agency is responsible for implementing the Marine Mammal Protection Act — through fiscal year 1999. This encompasses the most significant amendments that involved establishing a new regime to govern the taking of marine mammals’ incidental to commercial fishing, replacing the Interim Exemption in place since 1988. Three new sections were added to the Act to address commercial fishing: the preparation of stock assessments for all marine mammal stocks in waters under U. S. jurisdiction; development and implementation of take reduction plans for stocks that may be reduced or are being maintained below their optimum sustainable population levels due to interactions with commercial fisheries; and studies of pinniped-fishery interactions. Maintaining the original aspirations of the Marine Mammal Protection Act, the Amendments continue to protect marine mammals, seeking to maintain stocks at, or recover stocks to, and their optimum sustainable population levels. To achieve that goal, protection of essential habitats including rookeries, mating grounds and areas of similar significance is emphasized by including specific â€Å"habitat† language in the bill. Other major changes include a mechanism for authorizing importation of polar bear parts (other than internal organs) from Canada (provided the required findings are made); revised permit provisions for public display and scientific research; establishment of permits for purposes of photography; procedures for authorizing the intentional lethal taking of individually identifiable pinnipeds which are having a significant negative effect on salmonid fishery stocks; eliminated jurisdiction over the care and maintenance of captive marine mammals held for purposes of public display at registered or licensed facilities; and authority for providing grants to Alaska Native organizations for the purpose of developing co-management structures for marine mammal stocks taken for subsistence purposes. Enclosed to this, the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation (National Ocean Policy Study) held hearings on general MMPA issues on July 14 and 28, 1993, prior to the introduction of S. 1636 on November 8, 1993. The Senate Commerce Committee reported S. 1636 with amendments on January 25, 1994. On March 9, 1994, the House Merchant Marine Subcommittee marked up H. R. 2760, including amendments providing for polar bear trophies to be imported from Canada and establishing a process whereby Federal permission might be granted to intentionally kill individually identifiable pinnipeds having a significant negative effect on certain salmonid fishery stocks, without first having to determine that the marine mammal stock was within its optimum sustainable population range. Reduction Teams will be established to develop plans to reduce the incidental mortality and serious injury of marine mammals that interact with category I or II fisheries. The short-term goal of the plans is to reduce mortality and serious injury of marine mammals incidental to commercial fishing operations to levels below the affected stock’s PBR. The long-term goal of the plans is to reduce the rates of incidental mortality and serious injury of marine mammals to insignificant levels approaching a zero rate. In addition, to be authorized to take marine mammals, each commercial fishing vessel participating in a fishery with frequent or occasional interaction with marine mammals (category I and II fisheries) must be registered with NMFS. The 1994 Amendments encourage these agencies to take further measures to protect marine mammal rookeries, mating grounds, and areas of similar ecological significance. To expand knowledge and comprehension of the impacts of habitat destruction on marine mammal species and stocks, Regional Scientific Review Groups, in consultation with the Marine Mammal Commission (MMC), are to be established to advise the NMFS and FWS on actual, expected, or potential impacts of habitat destruction on marine mammal stocks. If habitat destruction is harming a stock defined as strategic, the Regional Scientific Review Group must recommend appropriate conservation or management measures to alleviate the impact. On the Pacific coast, NMFS is to undertake scientific investigations to assess the effects of California sea lions and Pacific harbor seals on endangered and threatened salmonid stocks. In the Gulf of Maine, a pinniped task force is to be established to advise NMFS concerning marine mammal interactions with aquaculture operations. The 1994 Amendments also allow the Secretary of Commerce to authorize the intentional killing of individually identifiable, non-depleted pinnipeds which can be shown to be having a significant negative effect on the decline or recovery of certain salmonid fish stocks listed as endangered or threatened under the ESA, approaching such status, or that migrate through Ballard Locks at Seattle, WA. Intentional killing can only be authorized after: a Pinniped-Fishery Interaction Task Force has been established by the Secretary to review the situation, consider previous control efforts, and take public comment; and the Task Force has recommended to the Secretary whether to approve or deny the proposed kill along with suggestions for nonlethal alternatives and a recommended course of action. For the first time, it is directed to develop and implement research plans to assess the health and stability of ecosystems of which marine mammals are a part. Specific activities include: a regional workshop for the Gulf of Maine to assess human-caused factors affecting ecosystem health and stability; development of a research plan to monitor the health and stability of the Bering Sea ecosystem; and assessment of the impact California sea lions and Pacific harbor seals have on salmonids and ecosystem stability in the coastal ecosystems of Washington, Oregon, and California. Both NMFS and the FWS now have the explicit authority to enter into cooperative agreements with Alaska Native organizations to conserve marine mammals and to provide co-management of subsistence use of Alaska marine mammal stocks by Alaska Natives. Agreements may include grants to Alaska Native organizations for: collecting and analyzing data on marine mammal populations, monitoring the harvest of marine mammals for subsistence use, participating in marine mammal research, and developing marine mammal co-management structures with Federal and State agencies. They are to promulgate regulations authorizing bona fide scientific research involving only Level B harassments without a formal permit. Persons must submit specified information to NMFS or FWS at least 60 days prior to beginning research. Also, expedited scientific research permits will be allowed when delay could cause injury to a marine mammal or loss of unique research opportunities. To add more, new permit procedures are to explicitly provide for educational and commercial photography of marine mammals. And on the 1994 Amendments establish a new mechanisms for authorizing polar bear trophies (other than internal organs) to be imported from Canada, provided the required findings are made. Subsequently, such imports will not be allowed if there is any indication, found in a study begun two years after the enactment, that the issuance of import permits by the United States is having a significant adverse effect on Canadian polar bear stocks. (http://www. Eoearth. org/The marine Mammal Protection Act).